Rwanda has a unique modern human settlement history dating back to about 8000 BC (Neolithic period) or 3000 BC (long humid period). History shows that hunter-gatherers settled in the country during the late Stone Age. They were followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers. The Iron Age settlers were known for making dimpled pottery and iron tools. These were the early ancestors of the Twa people (pygmies), who are still present in Rwanda today.
From 700 BC to 1500 AD, most of the Bantu groups moved into Rwanda. They cleared forests for farming, forcing the Twa to leave their original settlements and move to the mountain slopes. There are many theories about Bantu migrations; one theory suggests that the Hutu were the first settlers, followed by the Tutsi.
The social organization at that time mainly took the form of clans (Ubwoko). The clans were not restricted to family lineages or specific areas, and most included Tutsi, Twa, and Hutu. Clans later started to join together into kingdoms starting in the 15th century. By 1700, over eight kingdoms had been created in what is now Rwanda. These included the Kingdom of Rwanda, which was led by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan and became dominant from the mid-18th century. In the 19th century, the Kingdom of Rwanda became the strongest under the reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri.
Smaller states were also conquered, and the Kingdom expanded to cover the western and northern areas. Administrative reforms were introduced, including ubuhake, where Tutsi patrons gave cattle to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal services. There was also a forced labor system where Hutus had to work for Tutsi chiefs.
The 1884 Berlin Conference assigned Rwanda to Germany as part of German East Africa. This marked the beginning of the colonial era. Gustav Adolf von Götzen, the first European explorer to visit Rwanda, explored the country in 1894, traveling from the southeast to Lake Kivu and meeting the king. The Germans did not change Rwanda’s social structure much but influenced it by supporting the king and local chiefs.
During World War I, Belgian forces took over Rwanda and Burundi in 1916 and introduced a more direct colonial rule. Belgium governed both Rwanda and Burundi under the League of Nations Mandate known as Ruanda-Urundi. They simplified and centralized the power structure and started large projects in public works, health, education, and agriculture.
Both the Belgians and Germans promoted Tutsi dominance by taking advantage of racial differences between Hutu and Tutsi. In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards that labeled each person as Tutsi, Hutu, Twa, or naturalized. Wealthier Hutus had a chance to be classified as honorary Tutsi, but once identity cards were introduced, people could no longer change their social class.
Belgium continued to rule Ruanda-Urundi as a UN Trust Territory after World War II. Tensions grew between the Tutsi, who favored early independence, and the Hutu, who wanted emancipation. This led to the Rwandan Revolution of 1959. Hutu activists began killing Tutsi and destroying their homes, forcing over 100,000 people to flee to neighboring countries. In 1961, pro-Hutu Belgians organized a referendum.
